Adolescence and the formation of Identity

Adolescence and the Formation of Identity

Adolescence is a transitional period between childhood and adulthood, although it isn’t possible to define either childhood or adulthood precisely.

Childhood ends around puberty adulthood starts shortly afterwards.

In the west during the last couple of centuries economic and social conditions have demanded that more young people should be educated to meet the needs of industry and commerce. As education extended into teenage years fewer than a hundred years ago in England, a gap was created between childhood and adulthood and the young people who filled it were described as ‘adolescents’. This appears to be a cultural creation amongst western societies.

We will now study major explanations for psychological changes during adolescence and weather they inevitably culminate in conflict.

Blos’ Psychoanalytic view

Thirty years ago Blos’ reinterpreted Freud’s Views of the genital stage. He thought it was a time when young people started to reassert themselves and challenge parents in order to establish their own individuality. Since such challenges produce conflict the young person seeks the company of others in a similar position.

Blos (1967) took up Freud’s ideas and suggested that adolescence was like a second period of ‘Individuation’, the first being when the infant becomes a self reliant toddler.
Adolescents become separated from parents, according to Blos, results in an emotional emptiness that is satisfied by group experiences.
The striving for independence may also lead to regression to more childlike behaviour, which Blos regarded as a healthy and necessary response. Regression may be to an infantile state in order to receive substitute parenting, or regression may take the form of hero worship that can act as a substitute parent. Blos also believed that rebellion was important as a means of ego defence in order to prevent adolescents becoming dependant on their parents again.
More recent research suggests that autonomy develops best when it is accompanied by continuing attachment to parents. Independence and connectedness leading to healthy development. Connectedness does not mean dependence but describes how independence can only occur when an individual continues to have a secure base, in the same way that infant exploration is related to a secure base and secure attachment. - Ainsworth et al. (1970)
Adolescents who are securely attached to their parents have greater self esteem better emotional adjustment, are les likely to engage in problem behaviours and are physically healthier. Cooper et al (1998)
Erikson’s account of Psychosocial development
Ericson (1968) claims that psychosexual factors are more influential for personality growth than sexual urges identified by Freud. He replaces Freud’s four stages of personality development during childhood and adolescence with eight stages, covering the whole of ones life.

In order for our personalities to reach psychological and emotional maturity he claims we have to resolve certain crises or dilemmas in each of these stages. The extent to which each of these is resolved before passing to the next stage will determine the adults personality. With adolescence, children’s physical appearance and abilities change as does the way they think about the world. Their earlier ideas about their identity must change accordingly. The task of adolescence is to establish this sense of identity and overcome the role confusion about whom they are and where they are going.

Erikson (1968) suggested that these conflicts were psychosocial rather than Freud’s psychosocial crises – resolving social rather than physical conflicts. During adolescence the crisis to be resolved is the conflict between identity and role confusion.

If the crisis is resolved the outcome is a ‘Subjective sense of an invigorating sameness and continuity.’ This enables and individual to cope well with the demands of life and importantly to be able to form adult relationships. If the crisis is not resolved, the result is identity confusion, when an adolescent remains uncertain and usable to make commitments to life choices. Erikson identified four kinds of behaviour related to identity confusion:
Negative Identity:
Adopting an extreme identity, such as taking on the role of a delinquent or a drug abuser, provides some sense of control and independence from others.
Intimacy
The Adolescent avoids intimacy because of fear of losing their own fragile sense of identity. This may result in isolation or the formation of stereotyped relationships, such as the kind of pop star worship characteristic of some teenagers.
Time perspective:
The role-confused adolescent avoids making plans for the future because such plans mean thinking about the future and the complexities of being an adult, all of which provoke feelings of anxiety.
Industry
Adolescents find it difficult to get their level of ‘industry’ right. They either compulsively overwork or they find it hard to concentrate.

During the stage of adolescence, role confusion is healthy. The adolescent considers different roles, what job do I want to do, what beliefs should I hold and so on. During this period of confusion the adolescent will experience a ‘psychological moratorium’ – A temporary suspension of activity. Role sampling occurs here till we find the ‘best fit’ for our lives.

Support for Erikson’s theory:
Empirical support:
Some exists, most notably Marcia’s research. This was based on his own experience as a psychoanalyst working with adolescents and adults. He also based his developmental ideas on extensive interviews with Dakota Indians.

Adolescence as crisis:
Smith and Crawford (1986) found that 60 percent of students in secondary school reported having suicidal thoughts. This is contradicted by other studies.

Challenges to Erikson’s theory:
Andocentric:
This theory is written by a man from more of a male perspective and therefore is thought to be andocentric

Euro centrism:
Identity development is important to individualistic societies but may be unimportant to collectivist groups that emphasise the importance of ‘we’ rather than ‘I’. Kroger (1996) suggests that identity and role choice only occur in industrialised societies where there are choices.

Historical Bias:
Erikson’s conception that identity formation is related to role decisions may be dated. The notion of finding a ‘Job for life’ may be less true than 40 years ago.

Adolescence is not a time of turmoil:
Erikson’s theory was based on life histories of abnormal individuals.


Evaluation of the Psychosocial Approach.
Coleman (1974) challenges the notion that identity is fluid during adolescence, claiming that instead the adolescents sense of present identity is fairly stable, whereas ideas about future identity are likely to be confused. The idea of identity as a unitary concept has also been questioned .
Archer (1982) found that most adolescents had different identity statuses for occupational choice, gender role and religious and political beliefs.
Marcia’s Theory:

Marcia (1966) interviewed adolescents to establish the extent to which their feelings of identity were established. He suggested four stages:


Each of the stages begins with a ‘crisis’ ‘What should I be thinking, feeling, and doing about this or that issue?’ Having evaluated or re-evaluated their position, the individual then becomes committed to it. The below table summarises the main stages of identity formation during adolescence in terms of crisis and commitment.


Evaluation: Marcia’s approach:

Meilman (1978) and Waterman (1982) tested for the existence of each of Marcia’s stages and found that there is not sufficient conclusive evidence since the estimates of the percentage of people placed in each stage varies more than could be expected by chance.

Studies of other social influences (e.g. parenting styles) are unconvincing. Therefore they select cultural and social concerns at the time they were growing up.

Oversimplification is another concern. The idea of a single identity may be an oversimplification. Archer (1982) used Marcia’s interview technique and found that only 5 % of those interviewed were classed in the same identity status for:
Occupational Choice;
Gender Role;
Religious values;
Political Ideology;
90% were in 2 or 3 different stages across all 4 areas.


Evaluation of the psychosocial approach:
· Received some support from empirical studies of Marcia and others;
o Possible empirical bias due to all being middle class male Americans, therefore do not generalise;
· Coleman (1974) challenges the notion that identity is fluid during adolescence - claims that adolescence is fairly stable, whereas ideas about future identity are likely to be confused;
· Idea of identity as a unitary concept has also been questioned.
o Archer (1982) found that most adolescents had different identity statuses for occupational choice, gender role and religious and political beliefs.

Storm and Stress, or not?
Some adolescents it appears experience a difficult time during adolescence, less true in some cultures than in others and almost entirely true in western cultures.
Rutter (1976) reported that adolescent turmoil was rare:
· Isle of Wight study;
· 2000 participants
· 14-15 year olds and parents and teachers.
· Clinical depression rarely found
· 1 in 5 reported often feeling miserable and depressed, therefore leading psychologists participating to question whether this period in life is any different to any other.


Cross Cultural Evidence:
Culture = everything we have learned about growing up in our society.
All differences can be simplified into ‘norms’ and ‘values’ that are relative to a given culture.

Many people argue that it is impossible to try and understand and interpret the psychology or practices of someone from a different cultural experience.
To do so you would require one of two approaches:
Researchers must suspend all their own cultures norm as and values and become ‘value free’ in order to make an unbiased, objective observation.
They must become integrated into a new culture and try to take on its norms and values, so as to understand it ‘from the inside.’

Both of the above have been attempted it is very unlikely that they were very successful.
Broffenbrenner (1974) compared child-rearing patterns in the USSR and the USA and found that Russian adolescents showed more pro-social behaviour and less of the antisocial behaviour common in American adolescents. He argued that USSR adolescents had more opportunity to integrate into society than USA youths whom are segregated and discouraged from entering adulthood.

Evaluation: Storm and Stress in adolescence.

What causes storm and Stress?
Western culture
Does occur in any society however, it may be due to the way in which adults handle adolescence rather than as a consequence of the stage of transition itself.
Accuracy of cross cultural research:
We have to be cautious when considering cross cultural research;
Freeman (1983) argued that one such study had one woman admitting she had not been honest about her sexual experiences.

Explaining Adolescent Turmoil:
Being no longer a child yet ‘officially’ not an adult can lead to anxiety, storm and stress.












Coleman’s Focal Theory of Adolescence:

Coleman (1974) argues that by concentrating on one problem at a time they pass through adolescence without any major ‘storm and Stress’ – i.e. focal theory.

Evaluation of Focal Theory:
Research support:
Coleman and Hendry (1990):
800 boys and girls
Aged 11 to 17 years
Questioned about topics that were anxiety provoking;
Self image;
Living alone;
Occupational choice
Peer sexual and parenting relationships.
Each issue had a different distribution curve, peaking in importance over a particular age
Practical Applications:
Coleman’s theory has clear practical applications related to dealing with adolescent stress. Can you actually focus on only a couple of issues at a time or do life factors make this impossible?
Alternative explanation
Eccles et al. (1993) suggested that the reason many adolescents experience stress is because of the mismatch between developing needs and opportunities afforded to them by their social environments.


Adolescent Relationships:

Relationships with parents:
Autonomy, Identity and conflict.

· Autonomy:
Apter (1990) studies 65 mother and daughter pairs in the US and UK and found that the most of the adolescent girls said that the person they felt closest to was their mother.
They might have minor quarrels, but these might be best understood as attempts to change the power balance of the parent-child relationship from a one-sided one of parental authority to a more equal adult relationship.
· Identity:
Waterman (1982) reviewed a number of studies that looked at the relationship between parenting styles and identity development.
Concluded that domineering parenting is associated with identity foreclosure, whereas moratorium and identity achievement are connected with a warmer, democratic style.

· Conflict:
Santrock (2001) argues that adolescence results in conflict which is at its highest in early adolescence, but decreases with age.
Laurenson (1995) reported that most adolescent conflicts were with mothers followed by friends, romantic partners and fathers.
Relationships with parents are definitely affected by parenting style. Baumrind (1991) suggested that there are two key dimensions to parenting styles: responsiveness and demandingness.


Evaluation: Research into relationships with parents:

Oversimpification of family relationships:
Adaptive parenting strategy may be the best approach. Where a parent responds to different situations with permissiveness, authoritativeness and authoritarianism as appropriate (Sandtrock2001)

Two Way process:
Parents are socialised by their adolescent children.
Parents benefit from their relationships with adolescent offspring.
Montemayor et al (1993) found mid life stress in fathers was negatively correlated with quality of interaction between them and their adolescent children.

Parental conflict

Gender and cultural differences:
Frey and Rothlisberger (1996) argue that parental relationships have been found to be more important for boys than girls.
In India adolescents’ continue to have a closer more subordinate relationship with parents. (Larsen 1999)


Relationship with peers:
· Frey and Rothlisberger (1996) found that adolescents had twice as many relationships with peers than family.
· Piaget (1932) argued that parent-child relationships consist of unilateral control whereas peer relationships are more egalitarian. Children conform to parents rules and regulations because parents have authority and greater knowledge. Peers eveolve standards of behaviour that are mutually acceptable.

· Autonomy:
· Blos (1967) offered an explanation for the importance of the peer group. HE suggested that peers provide a ‘way-station’ on the road to achieving separation and individuation because they help the adolescent to avoid feelings of loneliness without having to make any commitment
· Steinberg and Silverberg (1986) suggest that the security of peer acceptance provides adolescents with the necessary confidence to break away from parental dependence.
· Identity
Erikson (1968) suggested that peers are important for healthy identity development because they allow adolescents to explore ideologies, test their ability to form intimate relationships with others and help them to relinquish their psychological dependence on parents
Brown and Lohr (1987) assessed self esteem in students in US high school and found that those who did not have a clique did not have as high self esteem as those in popular cliques.

· Conflict and peer conformity:
Berndt (1979) conducted a classic study of peer conformity with American adolescents. He asked them questions about the likelihood of conformity in particular situations.
From early to mid adolescence there is an increase in anti-social conformity but this then declines. Peer conformity probably declines in later adolescence because there is a growing focus on individual identity and individual romantic attachments, so interest in the peer group wanes.


Cultural Differences in Adolescent Behaviour

I will now outline the main differences on the development of autonomy, identity and conflict:
· Autonomy:
o Jensen (1999) reviewed research on adolescence and concluded that some of the difficulties reported during adolescence might be related to a living in an individualistic society.
o This contracted with collectivist society uch as Japan, where dependence rather than independence is regarded as a central part of becoming an adult. (Doi 1973)

· Identity:
o Individualistic versus collectivism
Dien (1983) argues that in china, contrasting to the US, the little me (Yourself) is sacrificed for the big me (Group identity)
o Urban Vs Rural
Chisholm and Hurrelmann (1995) argue that society becomes more pluralised and fragmented leading to the transition from child to adult becoming more delayed because the choices become greater and less clearly defined in more complex societies.
o Ethnic Minorities:
Phinney (1996) defined ethnicity as ‘enduring, basic aspect of the self that includes as sense of membership in the ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings related to that membership.
Berry (1997) proposed that there are four routes that can be taken by members of an ethnic minority:
1. Assimilation – Identifying with dominant culture and rejecting their origins.
2. Integration – Identifying with both dominant and ethnic cultures.
3. Separation – Focus exclusively on ethnic culture and reject dominant culture.
4. Marginality – remain on fringes of both cultures.
White and Burke (1987) found that integration is associated with better adjustment in adolescents.
· Conflict:
o Historical Change:
Shaffer (1993) claimed adolescence is an invention of the 20th century.
















Evaluation: Cultural Differences:

· The importance of Cross Cultural Research:
Cultural influence is not surprising since adolescents are being socialised into becoming members of their society.
· Problems with cross cultural research:
Local understandings may lead to globally being criticised for being biased in sampling etc on preconceived expectations.
· Minimising cultural differences:
Exposure to global media may result in lower differences culturally.









References of note:

Blos (1967) - Took up Freud’s ideas and suggested
that adolescence was like a second period of ‘Individuation’, the first being when the infant becomes a self reliant toddler.
Adolescents become separated from parents, according to Blos, results in an emotional emptiness that is satisfied by group experiences.

Ainsworth et al. (1970) - More recent research suggests that
autonomy develops best when it is accompanied by continuing attachment to parents. Independence and connectedness leading to healthy development. Connectedness does not mean dependence but describes how independence can only occur when an individual continues to have a secure base, in the same way that infant exploration is related to a secure base and secure attachment.

Cooper et al (1998) - Adolescents who are securely
attached to their parents have greater self esteem better emotional adjustment, are les likely to engage in problem behaviours and are physically healthier.

Ericson (1968) - Claims that psychosexual factors are
more influential for personality growth than sexual urges identified by Freud. He replaces Freud’s four stages of personality development during childhood and adolescence with eight stages, covering the whole of ones life.
- suggested that these conflicts were
psychosocial rather than Freud’s psychosocial crises – resolving social rather than physical conflicts. During adolescence the crisis to be resolved is the conflict between identity and role confusion.
Smith and Crawford (1986) - Found that 60 percent of students in
secondary school reported having suicidal thoughts. This is contradicted by other studies.

Kroger (1996) - Suggests that identity and role choice
only occur in industrialised societies where there are choices.

Meilman (1978) and
Waterman (1982) - Tested for the existence of each of
Marcia’s stages and found that there is not sufficient conclusive evidence since the estimates of the percentage of people placed in each stage varies more than could be expected by chance.

Archer (1982) - Used Marcia’s interview technique
and found that only 5 % of those interviewed were classed in the same identity status for Occupational Choice; Gender Role; Religious values; Political Ideology; 90% were in 2 or 3 different stages across all 4 areas.
Coleman (1974) - Challenges the notion that identity is
fluid during adolescence, claiming that instead the adolescents sense of present identity is fairly stable, whereas ideas about future identity are likely to be confused. The idea of identity as a unitary concept has also been questioned .
Archer (1982) - Found that most adolescents had
different identity statuses for occupational choice, gender role and religious and political beliefs.

Rutter (1976) - Isle of Wight study.
Attempted to assess whether storm and stress occurred or not.

Broffenbrenner (1974) - Compared child-rearing patterns in
the USSR and the USA and found that Russian adolescents showed more pro-social behaviour and less of the antisocial behaviour common in American adolescents. He argued that USSR adolescents had more opportunity to integrate into society than USA youths whom are segregated and discouraged from entering adulthood.

Eccles et al. (1993) - Suggested that the reason many
adolescents experience stress is because of the mismatch between developing needs and opportunities afforded to them by their social environments.

Coleman and Hendry (1990): - 800 boys and girls; Aged 11 to 17
years; Questioned about topics that were anxiety provoking; Self image; Living alone; Occupational choice; Peer sexual and parenting relationships. Each issue had a different distribution curve, peaking in importance over a particular age

Apter (1990) - Studies 65 mother and daughter pairs
in the US and UK and found that the most of the adolescent girls said that the person they felt closest to was their mother.
They might have minor quarrels, but these might be best understood as attempts to change the power balance of the parent-child relationship from a one-sided one of parental authority to a more equal adult relationship
Waterman (1982) - Concerns adolescents ability to
identify with their parents. reviewed a number of studies that looked at the relationship between parenting styles and identity development. Concluded that domineering parenting is associated with identity foreclosure, whereas moratorium and identity achievement are connected with a more warm, democratic style.

Santrock (2001) - Argues that adolescence results in
conflict which is at its highest in early adolescence, but decreases with age.

Laurenson (1995) - reported that most adolescent
conflicts were with mothers followed by friends, romantic partners and fathers.

Baumrind (1991) - Relationships with parents are
definitely affected by parenting style.
Baumrind suggested that there are two key dimensions to parenting styles: responsiveness and demandingness.

Sandtrock (2001) - Oversimpification of family
relationships: Adaptive parenting strategy may be the best approach.
Where a parent responds to different situations with permissiveness,
authoritativeness and
authoritarianism as appropriate

Montemayor et al (1993) - Found mid life stress in fathers was
negatively correlated with quality of interaction between them and their adolescent children.

Frey and Rothlisberger (1996) - Argue that parental relationships
have been found to be more important for boys than girls.

Larsen (1999) - In India adolescents continue to have
a closer more subordinate relationship with parents.




Frey and Rothlisberger (1996) - Found that adolescents had
twice as many relationships with peers than family.
Piaget (1932) - Argued that parent-child
relationships consist of unilateral control whereas peer relationships are more egalitarian. Children conform to parents rules and regulations because parents have authority and greater knowledge. Peers eveolve standards of behaviour that are mutually acceptable.
Blos (1967) - Offered an explanation for
the importance of the peer group. He suggested that peers provide a ‘way-station’ on the road to achieving separation and individuation because they help the adolescent to avoid feelings of loneliness without having to make any commitment
Steinberg and Silverberg (1986) - Suggest that the security of
peer acceptance provides adolescents with the necessary confidence to break away from parental dependence.
Erikson (1968) - Suggested that peers are
important for healthy identity development because they allow adolescents to explore ideologies, test their ability to form intimate relationships with others and help them to relinquish their psychological dependence on parents
Brown and Lohr (1987) - Assessed self esteem in
students in US high school and found that those who did not have a clique did not have as high self esteem as those in popular cliques.

Berndt (1979) - Conducted a classic study of
peer conformity with American adolescents. He asked them questions about the likelihood of conformity in particular situations.
From early to mid adolescence there is an increase in anti-social conformity but this then declines. Peer conformity probably declines in later adolescence because there is a growing focus on individual identity and individual romantic attachments, so interest in the peer group wanes.

Jensen (1999) - Reviewed research on
adolescence and concluded that some of the difficulties reported during adolescence might be related to a living in an individualistic society.
Doi (1973) - This contracted with
collectivist society such as Japan, where dependence rather than independence is regarded as a central part of becoming an adult.
Dien (1983) - Individualistic versus
collectivism. Argues that in china, contrasting to the US, the little me (Yourself) is sacrificed for the big me (Group identity)
Chisholm and Hurrelmann (1995) - Urban Vs Rural. Argue that
society becomes more pluralised and fragmented leading to the transition from child to adult becoming more delayed because the choices become greater and less clearly defined in more complex societies.
Phinney (1996) - Defined ethnicity as
‘enduring, basic aspect of the self that includes as sense of membership in the ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings related to that membership.

Berry (1997) - Proposed that there are four
routes that can be taken by members of an ethnic minority:
Assimilation – Identifying with dominant culture and rejecting their origins.
Integration – Identifying with both dominant and ethnic cultures.
Separation – Focus exclusively on ethnic culture and reject dominant culture.
Marginality – remain on fringes of both cultures.

White and Burke (1987) - Found that integration is
associated with better adjustment in adolescents
























Concepts to note:

Define these terms:

· adolescence
· focal theory of adolescence
· identity
· Role Confusion
· identity achievement
· identity diffusion
· identity foreclosure
· identity moratorium
· identity versus role confusion

· Connectedness


What do they say or do?

· Blos
· Bronfenbrenner
· Coleman
· Erikson
· Floyd and South
· Freeman
· Fulini and Eccles
· Marcia
· Mead
· Meilman
· Rutter
· Waterman